Oct 9, 202110 min read

Science Brief: COVID-19 Vaccines and Vaccination

Summary of Recent Changes

Data were added indicating that COVID-19 vaccination remains highly effective against COVID-19 hospitalization and death caused by the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2.
Data were added from studies published since the last update that further characterize reduced COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against asymptomatic and mild symptomatic infections with the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2.
Data were added from studies published since the last update that suggest decreased vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 infection, symptomatic disease, and hospitalization in several groups of immunocompromised persons and potential benefit of a third dose of COVID-19 vaccine in immunocompromised populations.
Data were added summarizing several small studies of heterologous COVID-19 vaccination series (i.e., mixed schedules), which found that a dose of adenovirus vector vaccine followed by a dose of mRNA vaccine elicits antibody responses at least as high as two doses of mRNA vaccine.
Data were added from recent studies examining the duration of protection conferred by COVID-19 vaccination.
Data were added from recent studies describing clinical outcomes and transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2 infections in fully vaccinated persons.

Key Points

All COVID-19 vaccines currently approved or authorized in the United States (Pfizer-BioNTech/Comirnaty, Moderna, and Janssen [Johnson & Johnson]) are effective against COVID-19, including against severe disease, hospitalization, and death.
Available evidence suggests the currently approved or authorized COVID-19 vaccines are highly effective against hospitalization and death for a variety of strains, including Alpha (B.1.1.7), Beta (B.1.351), Gamma (P.1), and Delta (B.1.617.2); data suggest lower effectiveness against confirmed infection and symptomatic disease caused by the Beta, Gamma, and Delta variants compared with the ancestral strain and Alpha variant. Ongoing monitoring of vaccine effectiveness against variants is needed.
Limited available data suggest lower vaccine effectiveness against COVID-19 illness and hospitalization among immunocompromised people. In addition, numerous studies have shown reduced immunologic response to COVID-19 vaccination among people with various immunocompromising conditions.
The risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection in fully vaccinated people cannot be completely eliminated as long as there is continued community transmission of the virus. Early data suggest infections in fully vaccinated persons are more commonly observed with the Delta variant than with other SARS-CoV-2 variants. However, data show fully vaccinated persons are less likely than unvaccinated persons to acquire SARS-CoV-2, and infections with the Delta variant in fully vaccinated persons are associated with less severe clinical outcomes. Infections with the Delta variant in vaccinated persons potentially have reduced transmissibility than infections in unvaccinated persons, although additional studies are needed.
This updated science brief synthesizes the scientific evidence supporting CDC’s guidance for fully vaccinated people and will continue to be updated as more information becomes available.

Background

COVID-19 vaccination is a critical prevention measure to help end the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 vaccines are now widely available in the United States, and CDC recommends all people 12 years and older be vaccinated against COVID-19.

On August 23, 2021, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved an mRNA vaccine (Pfizer-BioNTech/Comirnaty) as a 2-dose series for prevention of symptomatic COVID-19 in persons aged ≥16 years. This vaccine is also authorized under an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) to be administered to prevent COVID-19 in persons aged 12-15 years. A second mRNA vaccine (Moderna), as well as a recombinant, replication-incompetent adenovirus serotype 26 (Ad26) vector vaccine (Janssen vaccine [Johnson & Johnson]) are authorized under an EUA for use in persons aged ≥18 years. Both mRNA vaccines are also authorized for administration of an additional dose to certain immunocompromised persons.

People are considered fully vaccinated if they are ≥2 weeks following receipt of the second dose in a 2-dose series (mRNA vaccines), or ≥2 weeks following receipt of a single-dose vaccine (Janssen vaccine).*

Public health recommendations for people fully vaccinated with FDA-approved or FDA-authorized COVID-19 vaccines consider evidence of vaccine effectiveness against symptomatic COVID-19 with and without severe outcomes, as well as vaccine impact on SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Other individual and societal factors are also important when evaluating the benefits and potential harms of additional prevention measures (e.g., masking, physical distancing) among vaccinated individuals. The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices and CDC routinely consider individual health benefits and risks along with factors such as population values, acceptability, and feasibility of implementation when making vaccine recommendations.(1) These factors were also considered when developing CDC’s interim public health recommendations for fully vaccinated people.

In this scientific brief, we summarize evidence available through August 24, 2021, for the currently approved or authorized COVID-19 vaccines (administered according to the recommended schedules) and additional considerations used to inform public health recommendations for fully vaccinated people, including:

Vaccine efficacy and effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 infection in the general population as well as among immunocompromised persons
Vaccine effectiveness of heterologous (mixed) vaccination series
Vaccine performance (i.e., immunogenicity and effectiveness) against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variant viruses, with a particular focus on the Delta (B.1.617.2) variant

Current evidence indicates that fully vaccinated people without immunocompromising conditions are able to engage in most activities with low risk of acquiring or transmitting SARS-CoV-2, with additional prevention measures (e.g. masking) where transmission is substantial or high.

Emerging SARS-CoV-2 viral variants

As of August 28, 2021, the Delta variant of concern (B.1.617.2) is the predominant variant in the United States, with 99% of sequenced specimens being identified as Delta; current data on variant prevalence can be found on CDC’s website. The Delta variant, first detected in India, has been shown to have increased transmissibility, potential reduction in neutralization by some monoclonal antibody treatments, and reduction in neutralization by post-vaccination sera.(2)

Other variants that are either no longer detected or are circulating at very low levels in the United States include: Alpha (B.1.1.7), first detected in the United Kingdom; Beta (B.1.351), first detected in South Africa; Gamma (P.1), first detected in Japan/Brazil; Iota (B.1.526), first detected in the United States-New York; Eta (B.1.525), first detected in the United Kingdom/Nigeria; Kappa (B.1.617.1) and B.1.617.3, first detected in India. These variants have mutations that alter the receptor binding domain of the spike protein and have variable impact on vaccine effectiveness (notably the E484K/Q mutation in Beta, Gamma, Eta, Iota, Kappa, and B.1.617.3; the N501Y mutation occurring in Alpha, Beta, and Gamma; the E417T/N mutations in Beta and Gamma; and the L452R mutation in Delta, Kappa and B.1.617.3).(2) Vaccine performance against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants is an important consideration when evaluating the need for prevention measures in vaccinated people and will require continued monitoring.

COVID-19 vaccine efficacy, effectiveness, and immunogenicity

Immunogenicity is the generation of effective protective immunity against a vaccine antigen as measured by laboratory tests. Vaccine efficacy refers to how well a vaccine performs in a carefully controlled clinical trial, and effectiveness describes its performance in real-world observational studies. Evidence demonstrates that the approved or authorized COVID-19 vaccines are both efficacious and effective against symptomatic, laboratory-confirmed COVID-19, including severe forms of the disease. In addition, as shown below, a growing body of evidence suggests that COVID-19 vaccines also reduce asymptomatic infection and transmission. Substantial reductions in SARS-CoV-2 infections (both symptomatic and asymptomatic) will reduce overall levels of disease, and therefore, SARS-CoV-2 virus transmission in the United States. Investigations are ongoing to further assess the risk of transmission from fully vaccinated persons with SARS-CoV-2 infections to other vaccinated and unvaccinated people. Early evidence suggests infections in fully vaccinated persons caused by the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 may be transmissible to others; however, SARS-CoV-2 transmission between unvaccinated persons is the primary cause of continued spread.

Animal challenge studies

Rhesus macaque challenge studies provided the first evidence of the potential protective effects of Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, and Janssen COVID-19 vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 infection, including both symptomatic and asymptomatic infection. Vaccinated macaques developed neutralizing antibodies that exceeded those in human convalescent sera and showed no or minimal signs of clinical disease after SARS-CoV-2 challenge.(3-5) In addition, COVID-19 vaccination prevented or limited viral replication in the upper and lower respiratory tracts, which may have implications for transmission of the virus among humans.(3-5)

Vaccine efficacy from human clinical trials

Clinical trials subsequently demonstrated the FDA-approved or authorized COVID-19 vaccines to be efficacious against laboratory-confirmed, symptomatic COVID-19 in adults, including severe forms of the disease, with evidence for protection against both symptomatic and asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection (6-12) (Box). Trial data demonstrated 100% efficacy of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine against laboratory-confirmed, symptomatic COVID-19 in adolescents 12–15 years old; this estimate was based on small numbers of cases and prior to emergence of the Delta variant.(13)

Clinical trial data suggest that the Janssen COVID-19 vaccine may have reduced overall efficacy against disease caused by the Beta variant, compared to the other COVID-19 vaccines. Although sero-response rates were similar between U.S. clinical trial participants and those from Brazil and South Africa, vaccine efficacy against moderate to severe-critical COVID-19 after ≥14 days was 74% in the United States (where ~96% of infections were due to the ancestral strain with the D614G mutation), 66% in Brazil (where ~69% of infections were due to Zeta [P.2]), and 52% in South Africa (where ~95% of infections were due to Beta).(14) Notably, Janssen vaccine showed good efficacy against severe or critical disease (73%–82%) across all sites.

Box. Summary of vaccine efficacy estimates for approved or authorized COVID-19 vaccines All approved or authorized COVID-19 vaccines demonstrated efficacy (range 65% to 95%) against symptomatic, laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 in adults ≥18 years.

For each approved or authorized COVID-19 vaccine, efficacy was demonstrated across different populations, including elderly and younger adults, in people with and without underlying health conditions, and in people representing different races and ethnicities.
The Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine also demonstrated high efficacy against symptomatic, laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 in adolescents aged 12-17 years.

All approved or authorized COVID-19 vaccines demonstrated high efficacy (≥89%) against COVID-19 severe enough to require hospitalization. All approved or authorized COVID-19 vaccines demonstrated high efficacy against COVID-19-associated death.

In the clinical trials, no participants who received a COVID-19 vaccine died from COVID-19; the Moderna and Janssen vaccine trials among adults ≥18 years each had COVID-19 deaths in the unvaccinated placebo arm.

Data from the clinical trials among adults ≥18 years old suggest COVID-19 vaccination protects against symptomatic infection and may also protect against asymptomatic infection.

In the Moderna trial, among people who had received a first dose, the number of asymptomatic people who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 at their second-dose appointment was approximately 67% lower among vaccines than among placebo recipients (0.1% [n=15] and 0.3% [n=39], respectively)
Efficacy of Janssen COVID-19 vaccine against asymptomatic infection was 74% in a subset of trial participants.

No trials have compared efficacy between any of the approved or authorized vaccines in the same study population at the same time, making comparisons of efficacy difficult.

All Phase 3 trials differed by calendar time and geography.
Vaccines were tested in settings with different background COVID-19 incidence and circulating variants.

Vaccine effectiveness from real-world studies

Multiple studies from the United States and other countries have demonstrated that a two-dose COVID-19 mRNA vaccination series is effective against SARS-CoV-2 infection (including both symptomatic and asymptomatic infections) caused by ancestral and variant strains and sequelae including severe disease, hospitalization, and death. Early evidence for the Janssen vaccine also demonstrates effectiveness against COVID-19 in real-world conditions. There is now a substantial volume of scientific literature examining the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 infection, symptomatic disease, and other clinical outcomes; detailed summaries of these studies are available in the International Vaccine Access Center’s VIEW-Hub resource library.

Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses of vaccine effectiveness have recently been published (15-17); meta-analyses indicate an average effectiveness of full vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 infection of 85%–95% shortly after completion of vaccination. (16, 17) However, many of the studies in these reviews were conducted prior to the emergence of the variants of concern. Studies in Israel, Europe, and the United Kingdom have demonstrated high real-world effectiveness (>85%) of two doses of Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine while the Alpha variant was prevalent.(18-26) Studies from Qatar have demonstrated high effectiveness against documented infection with Alpha and Beta ≥14 days after receiving the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine (90% and 75%, respectively) and the Moderna vaccine (100% and 96%, respectively); importantly, both vaccines were 96%–100% effective against severe, critical, or fatal disease, regardless of strain.(27, 28) In three studies from Canada, one demonstrated 79% effectiveness for mRNA vaccines against confirmed infection during a time when Alpha and Gamma represented most infections, while another two demonstrated 84% and 88% effectiveness, respectively, against symptomatic infection caused by Gamma/Beta.(29-31)

Individual studies specifically examining vaccine effectiveness against the Delta variant or conducted in the context of substantial circulation of Delta are summarized in Table 1a and as follows. Studies from the United Kingdom have noted effectiveness of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine against confirmed infection (79%) and symptomatic infection (88%), compared with the Alpha variant (92% and 93%, respectively).(23, 25) A study from Canada demonstrated 87% effectiveness against symptomatic illness caused by the Delta variant ≥7 days after receipt of the second dose of Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, compared with 89% for the Alpha variant.(32)Data from Qatar demonstrated 54% effectiveness against symptomatic illness for the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine compared with 85% for the Moderna vaccine.(33). Preliminary data from South Africapdf icon on the effectiveness of the Janssen vaccine showed 71% effectiveness against hospitalization when Delta variant was predominant, compared to 67% when Beta was predominant. Data from Israelpdf icon also suggest decreased effectiveness of vaccines against infection and illness caused by Delta. The variability in vaccine effectiveness estimates between countries may in part reflect differences in study methodology, intervals used between vaccine doses, and timing of vaccine effectiveness assessments. Of note, the United Kingdom and Canada used prolonged intervals of 12–16 weeks between vaccine doses, which have been observed to induce higher immunogenicity and effectiveness (including in ages ≥80 years) (34-37). The most recent estimates from Israel and Qatar represent time points >6 months after initiating respective national vaccination campaigns and 2–5 months after prior assessments of vaccine effectiveness against the Alpha variant, with potential for waning immunity. Notably, in the United Kingdom, Canada, Qatar, South Africa, and Israel, vaccine effectiveness against hospitalization related to Delta was >90% and comparable to that observed with Alpha for all vaccines currently approved or authorized in the United States.(26, 32, 33)

Conclusions

COVID-19 vaccines currently approved or authorized in the United States have been shown to provide considerable protection against severe disease and death caused by COVID-19. These findings, along with the early evidence for reduced levels of viral mRNA and culturable virus in vaccinated people who acquire SARS-CoV-2 infection, suggest that any associated transmission risk is substantially reduced in vaccinated people: even for Delta, evidence suggests fully vaccinated people who become infected are infectious for shorter periods of time than unvaccinated people infected with Delta. While vaccine effectiveness against emerging and other SARS-CoV-2 variants will continue to be assessed, available evidence suggests that the COVID-19 vaccines approved or authorized in the United States offer substantial protection against hospitalization and death from emerging variants, including the Delta variant. Data suggest lower vaccine effectiveness against laboratory-confirmed illness and symptomatic disease caused by the Beta, Gamma, and Delta variants compared with the ancestral strain and Alpha variant. Early data also find some decline in vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 infection over time, although in fall 2021, 9 months after the start of the U.S. COVID-19 vaccination program, vaccination remains highly protective against hospitalization with COVID-19.

Evidence suggests the U.S. COVID-19 vaccination program has substantially reduced the burden of disease in the United States by preventing serious illness in fully vaccinated people and interrupting chains of transmission. Vaccinated people can still become infected and have the potential spread the virus to others, although at much lower rates than unvaccinated people. The risks of SARS-CoV-2 infection in fully vaccinated people are higher where community transmission of the virus is widespread. Current efforts to maximize the proportion of the U.S. population that is fully vaccinated against COVID-19 remain critical to ending the COVID-19 pandemic.

*Note: This brief summarizes evidence related to vaccines approved or authorized for emergency use in the United States. In specific circumstances, CDC guidance for fully vaccinated people can also be applied to COVID-19 vaccines that have been listed for emergency use by the World Health Organization (e.g. AstraZeneca/Oxford) and to some vaccines used for U.S. participants in COVID-19 vaccine trials.

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